Electron Transport Chain: Redox Potential Ladder

The mitochondrial electron transport chain is a staircase of redox potentials: electrons drop from a low, energy-rich reduction potential at NADH down to a high, energy-poor one at oxygen, releasing free energy in three real steps at Complexes I, III and IV that each pump protons across the inner membrane. This simulation renders that staircase in 3D at true relative heights derived from standard reduction potentials, lets you choose whether electrons enter via NADH (Complex I) or FADH₂ (Complex II), and lets you apply rotenone, antimycin A or cyanide to block a specific complex and watch electrons back up behind it. Live counters track total protons pumped, cumulative free energy released via ΔG°′ = −nFΔE°′, and the resulting P/O ratio for whichever pathway is currently open.