Cognitive Psychology — Memory, Perception & Decision Making

What Is Cognitive Psychology?

Cognitive psychology studies mental processes: how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems. Emerging from the "cognitive revolution" of the 1950s–60s (Broadbent, Miller, Chomsky, Newell & Simon), it replaced behaviorism’s black-box approach with information processing models. The mind is modeled as a system that receives input (perception), processes it (attention, short-term/working memory), stores it (long-term memory), and produces output (decisions, language, actions). Modern cognitive psychology integrates with neuroscience (cognitive neuroscience using fMRI, EEG), AI (computational models of cognition), and clinical psychology (CBT is based on cognitive models).

Memory Systems

Sensory memory : brief storage (iconic ~250ms, echoic ~3–4s). Short-term/Working memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974): limited capacity (~4 chunks — Cowan, 2001), duration ~20–30s without rehearsal. Components: central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer. Long-term memory : explicit (declarative) — episodic (personal events) and semantic (facts/knowledge); implicit (procedural — skills, priming, conditioning). Encoding strategies: elaborative rehearsal, dual coding (Paivio), spacing effect (distributed practice > massed), testing effect (retrieval practice strengthens memory). Forgetting: Ebbinghaus forgetting curve (exponential decay), interference (proactive/retroactive), retrieval failure. False memories : Loftus’s misinformation effect shows memories can be distorted or implanted.

Attention & Perception

Selective attention : focusing on one input while filtering others. Broadbent’s filter model (early selection), Treisman’s attenuation model, Deutsch & Deutsch (late selection). Divided attention : limited cognitive resources (Kahneman’s capacity model). Inattentional blindness (Simons & Chabris gorilla experiment): failing to notice visible stimuli when attention is engaged. Perception : organization of sensory information (Gestalt principles: proximity, similarity, closure, good continuation). Top-down processing (expectations influence perception) vs. bottom-up (data-driven). Visual perception : feature detection (Hubel & Wiesel), object recognition (Biederman’s geon theory), depth perception (binocular disparity, monocular cues).

Cognitive Biases & Decision Making

Kahneman & Tversky identified systematic biases in human judgment. Anchoring : initial information disproportionately influences estimates. Availability heuristic : judging probability by ease of recall (overestimate dramatic events). Confirmation bias : seeking evidence supporting existing beliefs. Dunning-Kruger effect : low-skill individuals overestimate their ability. Loss aversion : losses feel ~2× stronger than equivalent gains (prospect theory). Framing effect : choices differ based on how options are presented. System 1 and System 2 (Kahneman, "Thinking, Fast and Slow"): System 1 is fast, automatic, intuitive; System 2 is slow, deliberate, analytical. Most decisions are System 1, which is efficient but error-prone.

Language & Problem Solving

Language : Chomsky’s universal grammar (innate language acquisition device), Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (language influences thought — weak version supported). Language processing: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics. Problem solving : algorithms (exhaustive, guaranteed), heuristics (mental shortcuts, faster but imperfect). Duncker’s candle problem demonstrates functional fixedness. Insight problems vs. analytical problems. Tower of Hanoi: means-ends analysis. Creativity : divergent thinking (Guilford), incubation effect. Metacognition : thinking about thinking — self-regulation of learning, calibration of confidence. Applications: educational psychology (spaced repetition, interleaving), UX design (cognitive load theory), AI alignment (understanding human decision-making).

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❓ Frequently Asked Questions

What is working memory?

Working memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) is a limited-capacity system for temporarily holding and manipulating information. It has 4 components: central executive (attention controller), phonological loop (verbal/auditory), visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial), and episodic buffer (integrates information). Capacity: ~4 chunks (Cowan). Working memory capacity predicts fluid intelligence and academic performance.

What are cognitive biases?

Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from rational judgment. They occur because the brain uses heuristics (mental shortcuts) to process information quickly. Examples: anchoring (over-relying on first information), confirmation bias (seeking confirming evidence), and availability heuristic (judging likelihood by ease of recall). Over 200 biases have been documented.

How does memory work?

Memory involves three processes: encoding (converting information into a storable form), storage (maintaining over time), and retrieval (accessing stored information). Information flows from sensory memory (<1s) to short-term/working memory (~30s, limited) to long-term memory (unlimited capacity, can last a lifetime). Effective strategies: spaced repetition, active recall, elaboration, and adequate sleep.

What is the difference between System 1 and System 2 thinking?

System 1 (Kahneman): fast, automatic, intuitive, effortless — used for routine tasks (recognizing faces, reading signs). System 2: slow, deliberate, analytical, effortful — used for complex tasks (math problems, careful analysis). Most daily decisions are System 1. Cognitive biases arise when System 1 handles tasks that need System 2.

Can you improve your memory?

Yes. Evidence-based strategies: spaced repetition (review at increasing intervals — Anki), active recall (test yourself instead of re-reading), elaboration (connect new info to existing knowledge), dual coding (combine words and visuals), adequate sleep (7–9 hrs, memory consolidation), exercise (improves hippocampal function), and mindfulness meditation (improves working memory). Mnemonics (method of loci, acronyms) also help.

Try it live

Everything above runs in your browser — open Cognitive Processing Pipeline and change the parameters while it is running. Nothing is installed, nothing is uploaded, the whole model lives in one tab.