Q = h·A·ΔT (Newton's law of cooling/heating)
T_boil(alt) ≈ 100 − 0.0033·h_m (°C)
Convection cells: ρ warm ↑, ρ cool ↓
Heat flows from the burner into the pan and water via conduction and convection. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure drops, lowering the boiling point (why food takes longer to cook in the mountains). Convection currents form as hot water rises and cool water sinks, driving the bubbling you see.
- Burner power — sets heat input; more power raises the pan surface temperature and heat flux faster.
- Pan material — steel/copper/cast-iron have different thermal conductivities, changing how fast heat reaches the water.
- Altitude — lowers the boiling point, shown live via the barometric approximation.
- Convection flow — toggles visible particle streamlines showing hot water rising and cool water sinking.
Real-world application: chefs adjust cook times and pressure-cook at altitude because water boils at a lower temperature with less energy per bubble.