Fixed timestep Δt=1/120 s. Longitudinal force F=min(T·gear/r−mg sinθ−drag, μmg cosθ). Steering yaw rate v tanδ/L. Braking distance d=v²/(2μg). Static roll threshold α=atan(track/(2h)). Four spring-damper units: F=kx+cẋ; natural period 2π√(m/k). Energy integrates positive wheel work.

Simplifications: planar bicycle steering, lumped suspension, no full collision response, simplified traction saturation and load motion, visual particles only. Terrain slope is longitudinal; roll tilt is lateral acceleration approximation. Not a certification-grade engineering model.