Longitudinal force:
m a = clamp(Fmotor − Fbrake − Froll − Fdrag, ±√[(μN)²−Fy²]) − m g sin(θ) when aligned uphill.
Motor: T = min(Tpeak, Pmax/ω); wheel traction F = T·gear·η/r. Power draw includes hydraulic lifting and idle load.
Suspension: mcorner x″ + c x′ + kx = Ncorner. Ideal spring period 2π√(m/k).
Geometric tip limit: φcrit = atan(b / hCOM) with b remaining support distance. Raising the pallet raises hCOM, reducing the safe angle. Accelerations and grade also matter.
Braking (ideal flat surface): d = v²/(2 μ g). Graph dots are recorded brake runs; drag, grade and steering make real results differ.
Simplifications: reduced-order chassis yaw and body lean; load COM and tyre grip modelled; not a 6-DOF collision solver, tyre certification tool or safe operational training. Pickup uses proximity and speed gates.