Copper electrorefining cell: impure anodes dissolve (Cu to Cu2+ + 2e-), Cu2+ migrates through CuSO4/H2SO4 electrolyte and plates on stainless cathodes; noble metals fall as anode slime.
m = eta I t M / (n F), n = 2, M = 63.55 g/mol
V_cell = eta_a + eta_c + j d / kappa + contacts (+ passivation)
kappa = (14 + 0.07 [H2SO4]) (1 + 0.021 (T - 25)) S/m
E = 2 F V / (eta M) = 843 V / eta kWh/t
nodule short circuits grow with j^2 and fall with additive
Click a cathode to induce a short or to clear one: shorted cathodes stop plating and cut current efficiency.