Swarm settings

Swarm size: 30 particles Inertia weight (w): 0.60 Towers to place: 5

Coverage area

Coverage radius per tower: 140 units Demand-point layout

Controls

PSO live state

Iteration0

Best coverage (gbest)—

Swarm avg coverage—

Best-ever fitness (raw)—

Total demand weight—

Overlap penalty coeff.0.15

Each particle is a full candidate layout of every tower's (x, y) position. Every iteration: v ← w·v + c₁·r₁·(pbest − x) + c₂·r₂·(gbest − x), then x ← x + v, with c₁ = c₂ = 1.6 and fresh random r₁, r₂ per dimension. Fitness is the demand-weighted coverage of every point in the service area (quadratic signal falloff, best-server model) minus a penalty for towers redundantly covering the same point.